The Qur’an, God’s eternal and uncreated word, was revealed to the Prophet of Islam Muhammad (PBUH) in the Arabic language and first written down as a single volume by the mid 7th century AD. It was seen as imperative that the scripts used to copy the holy text should differ from everyday scripts, prompting the development of early Qur’anic scripts such as Kufic (named after the town of Kufah in Iraq). Due to their elegance and symmetry, these were deemed especially suitable to reflect the divine status of the Qur’an as a sacred text.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, vellum was the most common writing material because of its robust quality, but its expense limited production to smaller-sized volumes, predominantly oblong in format. Larger vellum Qur’ans were, however, also commissioned and in the 9th century North Africa remained one of the main centres of production. A fine example dating from this area and period displayed in the exhibition is a single leaf showing a stately Kufic script, executed with subtly controlled horizontal and vertical proportions of the letter. The magnificent execution of the illuminated surah heading reflects the highly disciplined hand with which this Qur’an was copied. (fig.1)

With the introduction of paper from China in the 10th century, and the introduction of new, more legible scripts during the 11th century, illumination became steadily more ornate. The beauty and fluidity of cursive scripts such as naskh and muhaqqaq allowed for more variety and diversity in the decorative repertoire as well as in the illumination. The Kufic script had by this time also spread and developed into new styles in the western Mediterranean; particularly distinctive calligraphic variations developed in North Africa and Spain, where the angular maghribi and andalusi scripts enjoyed prominence.

The necessary expense in producing such elaborately embellished copies of the Qur’an restricted artistic patronage to the wealthy elite and the royal courts. The court workshops of the great Mamluk, Ilkhanid and Timurid dynasties saw a new height of manuscript production during the 14th and 15th centuries, particularly of Qur’ans. A magnificent and visually striking example in the exhibition is an exceptionally rare and unusual section from a Mamluk Qur’an executed in muhaqqaq script, and containing an extensive marginal commentary. This copy is a masterwork of execution, and an extremely significant example of early Mamluk art. The style and quality of the illumination suggests that this was the work of Muhammad b. Mubadir, one of the foremost illuminators in Mamluk Cairo at the turn of the 13th century. (fig.2)

A continued development in calligraphic styles and illumination techniques from the 16th century onward are characteristic features of the Qur’ans of the great empires of the Safavids, Ottomans and Mughals. A particularly outstanding Qur’an in the exhibition has all the hallmarks of the luxurious artistic climate of 16th century Safavid Iran. A double-page opening of illuminated shamsas (sunbursts) is followed by a double-page illuminated frontispiece with the first and beginning of the second chapters set within gold medallions. A double page of prayers, set within colourful illuminated cartouches, at the end of the Qur’an is followed by a small falnama, or guide to divination, in white nasta’liq script, set within gold and blue squares. (fig.4)

The Mughal Empire was also renowned for lavishing patronage on the arts, including the commissioning of Qur’ans. A superb example is a late 17th century copy from North India, showing a striking local style. The three illuminated bifolia in the manuscript are of markedly different designs, using standard Indo-Persian patterns, with a blend of typical Persian and Indian colour palettes, and a combination of naskh, thuluth and muhaqqaq scripts embellished by elaborately illuminated decorative motifs. (fig.5)

During the 18th and 19th centuries the general style and format of the Qur’an remained similar, although illumination became richer, especially in the decoration of the double-page frontispieces. Hand-written and illuminated copies of the Qur’an of exceptional standard continued to be produced during the 19th century despite the introduction of the new technique of lithography.

Few manuscripts dating from before the 19th century have survived in Saharan and sub-Saharan Africa. Surviving manuscripts, such as a prayer manual in this exhibition, reflect a distinctly West African tradition of manuscript copying and illumination. The bold geometric decorations in earth colours complement perfectly the distinctive type of North African maghribi script commonly employed, and are testament to a vibrant and flourishing artistic tradition drawing on local as well as regional styles from the early 19th century through the 20th century.